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Bernard was recognized by his contemporaries as the spiritual leader of western Europe. He was an indefatigable advocate of the monastic life and occasionally criticized the schools on moral grounds, but he was by no means an anti-intellectual. He encouraged a number of early scholastic philosopher-theologians in their work. Although he devoted the better part of his efforts to his wide-ranging pastoral duties, Bernard’s own sermons and treatises make a significant contribution to twelfth-century theology and philosophy.